History and implication of plumbing. A paper I wrote for a writing class.

Impact of Plumbing

Since its first evidence in the ancient city of Babylonia in 6000 B.C., plumbing has been an indispensable part of modern day civilization. An ever-progressing invention and science, the proper disposal of wastewater and supply of drinking water is one of the largest and most pivotal aspects of keeping a society free from disease. Often overlooked and underappreciated is the long history of trial and error in an effort to perfect one of the greatest challenges of humankind. Today, almost every inhabitable building that exists in the United States is equipped with some form of a toilet, shower, sink and tub.

A society that lacks a strong infrastructure that supports applicable wastewater disposal provisions, is subject to disease and death. Fecal diseases such as dysentery, typhoid and hepatitis are the culprits that cause the premature death of thousands of people in many third world nations lacking plumbing. Another contender are the small parasitic worm species - such as the Guinea worm - that live in open water tanks and can infect individuals if not properly disposed of via a sewage system (Bourne 100). The individuals that survive these fecal borne diseases have to contend with infectious diseases propagated by unsanitary conditions such as typhus. Typhus is a disease that is seen in societies where bathing is not performed on a frequent basis. It is caused by a lice that ironically enough carries disease in its fecal matter and enters the human body through cuts in the skin.

Ancient humans realized the ill effects of their waste. It is argued that cavemen were the first to utilize plumbing practices, but in a much simpler context. When these ancient individuals simply relieved themselves in a stream, they removed the problem of diseased water yet maintained a constant supply of clean water from upstream. This approach to handling the problem worked well for some but not so well for individuals that lived downstream (Palmar 12). While this is thought to be the way early humans utilized the principle of plumbing in an attempt to keep them disease free, as populations grew into societies a more organized method was required.

What modern day individuals would see as legitimate plumbing was first witnessed around 3000 B.C. by the ancient people of Crete. (plumber.com “Crete“ Par. 1) Today’s plumbing systems are constructed of copper, iron, steel and plastic. It has taken nearly 5000 years to realize these are the best and safest materials for clean water supply and sewage control. The inhabitants of Crete utilized the only materials available to them. Rock and masonry composed the sewer systems and the water supply was simply comprised of a man or woman and a bucket (plumber.com “Crete“ Par. 8).

While the plumbing practices stayed relatively stagnant for the next few thousand years, the materials used did see some changes. The utilization of copper alloys in Egypt made their appearance around 2500 B.C. Around 432 B.C. the Greeks started using lead to form water supply systems (plumber.com “Greece“ Par. 2). The advent of lead in plumbing systems played a marked role in the history of plumbing. The aptly named “plumber” refers to the Latin word plumbārius or “lead worker” (dictionary.com). Unaware of the undesirable health properties associated with lead, this material was used for the next 2000 plus years and is even seen in some plumbing systems today.

No other civilization showed as much organization and infrastructure at the time, as the frozen time capsule of Pompeii. Much like the society of today, Pompeii had both an intertwined sewage system and a very ingenious method of water supply. Each home was equipped with its own sewage system, which was carefully crafted from lead by the much respected plumbers of the day - which for the most part tended to be women. These female tradespersons would fashion a sheet of lead into a pipe by wrapping it around a log. This method produced the intended result but created a pipe of varying thickness and rudimentary appearance. Nevertheless, each plumber would sign their work by etching their initials into the lead. There was much pride associated with the trade (plumber.com “Pompeii“ Par. 9).

More interesting than the waste pipe of Pompeii was the method of water supply. Gravity was used to create the flow of water through the Roman Aqueducts. From these supply pipes, smaller pipes branched off into individual homes. In each home a nozzle was installed in which fresh water could be attained. The citizens were charged for their water use; the size of their respective nozzle determined their bill. Each water pipe was individually labeled with the last name of the owner to discourage siphoning from occurring by those too cheap to pay for their own water (plumber.com “Pompeii“ Par. 7).

The aqueducts of Rome were truly an accomplishment even by today’s standards. This engineering marvel was constructed of stone and brick. As witnessed by their smooth clay linings, the engineers of the time were faced with the same problems regarding water flow as are faced today. A resistance free system had to be created that would encourage a steady flow of water to the population; and at the same time create little turbulence. Even in the Roman days, the engineers realized that turbulence could eventually erode their creation. The ancient Romans created these systems to drop 24 feet every mile (SchoolHistory.co.uk Par. 2). The very low grade they would put on these flowing streams, had to overcome many geographic pitfalls. When the aqueduct crossed a valley, an intricate system of supportive arches were constructed creating a bridge, and protecting the integrity of the grade. The Roman aqueducts spanned 300 miles and provided an average of 250 gallons of water a day per citizen (SchoolHistory.co.uk Par. 1). The water that was provided to the citizens did not reach the upper floors of homes. This forced the majority of individuals to empty their waste out of their windows onto the street. Drains would then dispose of this waste through the sewer system (SchoolHistory.co.uk Par. 1). These aqueducts were so well constructed that they are still in use today. Many cities such as Segovia continue to maintain and utilize these ancient structures to supply them with domestic drinking water (Wikipedia “aqueducts“ Last Par.).

Modern day plumbing truly saw its rapid succession beginning with the invention of the “S” trap. In 1775, Alexander Cummings created a trap in which water acted as a barrier to sewer emitted gases, and a vessel for the dispersal of waste. It was almost 100 years later when the “S” trap truly saw its glorious mainstay as the main component in the toilet. While the true inventor of the toilet is still highly debated between Thomas Crapper around 1850 and The Ancient Chinese 2000 years ago, the toilet has arguably been the greatest contribution to plumbing. (plumber.com “Closet“ Par. 4 & Last).

The method in which an “S” trap works is worth noting and diagramming due to its tremendous impact on the history of plumbing. Many detailed books have been written on the numerous attempts to create a simple apparatus in which to relieve oneself. Many of the early designs were simply too complicated. Various flappers and reservoir basins were designed but didn’t solve the health risk problem; or were simply too detailed to replicate. As is often said, the easy solution is usually the correct one. The “S” trap - which can be visualized by examining its impression on the side of any toilet - is simply in the shape of the letter ‘S’ flipped on its side and inverted. As water fills up one side of the ‘S’ it pushes the existing water to the other side of the trap and creates a siphoning effect. The sewage water drains into the passageway in one sound movement. The fresh water refills the trap and creates a liquid seal to unwelcome vermin and gases.

With the invention of the toilet, plumbing could rapidly develop. Plumbing’s history in America is a relatively short one. It began to gain popularity in the late 1800s as people started to build heavily populated cities. The different components of plumbing were at the time considered conveniences instead of necessities. As America was still a relatively new country, the citizens wanted to implement this new convenience in their own homes. They believed this would demonstrate their dedication to new ideas to the rest of the world (Ogle 8). It was this “better than thou” mentality that prompted the plumbing movement rather that a desire for a more sanitary society; a sort of status symbol.

In the early 1900s knowledgeable individuals printed incredibly detailed books outlining how to install plumbing in a home. These books read like the modern day plumbing code books, however their practices are far outdated. Though an examination of these instruction books is quite interesting, the creative construction techniques and ingenious inventions simply have not withstood the test of time. At this time, lead poisoning was at the forefront of many citizens minds and new inventions for carrying domestic water were being toyed with. One example was a pipe made out tin and surrounded by iron. This pipe was known in the early 1900’s as “Health Water Pipe” (Herring-Shaw 55). It was the first attempt at producing a safe alternative to distribute drinking water to people. Problems with corrosion, would eventually be the downfall of the “Health Water Pipe.”

The plumbing industry has progressed over the last hundred years quite rapidly. Copper alloys have become the standard for domestic water supply, and new plastic alternatives have taken the place of lead pipes for waste removal. The answer to the tin and iron pipe has been the copper pipe. Beautifully metallic copper water lines run cold and hot drinking water through almost every building in the United States today. Copper seems like a great alternative to other options as it doesn’t corrode or poison individuals. However, new research is proving that copper may not be the answer after all. A phenomenon known as pitting corrosion is caused when turbulent water actually digs a hole right through the side of a copper pipe wall. Even more recently has been the examination of the effects copper corrosion by-products may have on human health as they dissolve into the water supply (Jacobs 43-44).

A new global economy has pushed for the modern need of cheaper and easier systems to install. This has in turn created a huge amount of new materials and techniques that continue to be unveiled each day. The newest material being introduced to replace copper is a plastic material known as cross-linked polyethylene or PEX. This new material was introduced to solve many of the problems that had become evident with copper. This material can handle liquid temperatures up to 150 °C (Wikipedia “Pex“ Par. 3); is made out of plastic - so it doesn’t corrode; and prevents freeze breaks from occurring as it can expand to accommodate freezing water.

Plumbing has become such a common commodity in today’s society, many people take it for granted. However, as previously mentioned this invention which only 100 years ago was considered a convenience, is a key aspect in keeping our modern society free of many diseases. If indoor plumbing had not progressed as quickly as it did, accommodating millions of people all within the confines of a single city would surely produce mass deaths by the likes of many water-borne diseases. It should be noted that although modern plumbing is a critical part of the maintained health on society today, not everyone in the United States has indoor plumbing. While city building codes usually condemn a building with sub-par or non existent plumbing, many people in rural areas are forced into the alternate route. A census in 2000 showed that 670,000 homes in the U.S. didn’t have indoor plumbing . Most of these homes are owned by poor citizens in Alaska, New Mexico and Arizona (Niesse Par. 6). A stifling amount of these are Native Americans. A 1995 Census illustrated that 26 percent of those living on Indian reservations are without any plumbing facilities. A percentage reminiscent of a 1950 Census report for those in all of America that lacked plumbing (U.S. Bureau of the Census 1,3). These individuals are forced to relieve themselves in the wild and manually heat water for bathing. Luckily this number is on the decline as more individuals in the United States are able to experience the convenience of this commodity. However, this lack of adequate plumbing continues to plague millions around the world.

The majority of individuals living in third world nations face poor or nonexistent plumbing on a daily basis. In a 2006 World health publication on the health aspects of plumbing, the small city of Dhaka was referenced as an example of the horrible living conditions inadequate plumbing can produce. With a 40 fold increase in population over the last thirty years, an incredible amount of pressure has been put on Dhaka’s plumbing system. Due to lack of government efforts to improve upon their system, raw sewage roams the streets every year during the flooding of the Buri Ganga River. In addition, the main sewer pipe is out of service. When the main pipe was in service, many sewage lines had been illegally tapped. These lines carried heavy metals and industrial waste into the main sewer. This nation of disease sees tens of thousands of children die each year at the hands of water-borne diseases (WHO 9).

However, plumbing in itself is not enough to prevent these forms of diseases. Proper Plumbing practices are necessary in order to keep sewage and drinking water far away from one another. In 1868 The New York Metropolitan Board of Health was created in response to an outcry from the public in the form of an essay written in 1865 called the Citizen's Association Report on the Sanitary Condition of the City which stated, “ We, the citizens of Lower East Manhattan, declare that this city is unsuitable for human development, child development and moral development. We, citizens of all classes, have suffered from deadly diseases such as cholera, tuberculosis, small pox and pneumonia at the hands of public officials who scoff at our sufferings. We believe that housing, politics, morals and health are all intertwined and without one, we would be quite at a loss.” In response, the Board of Health created a rough outline as to the proper installation of plumbing systems. In an even greater attempt to regulate plumbing, in 1881 New York began requiring that every plumber register with the state. They also created plumbing inspectors to watch over these tradesmen (New York Times). While this was a crucial step towards stressing the importance of properly plumbed buildings, inspectors of the day and age usually failed to conduct a thorough inspection. As a result a 1933 outbreak of Typhoid in Chicago occurred and was blamed on improperly installed plumbing systems (plumber.com “USA, Of Codes and men” Par. 7).

Seemingly unrelated viruses are also making an unexpected appearance through lack of adequate plumbing. Recently, The Sars virus of Asia has been blamed due in part to leaky plumbing. Apparently an infected individual whom was stricken with diarrhea (a common symptom of the virus) used the bathroom and inadvertently infected 324 other individuals. A leaky sewage pipe that maintained a steady drip of infected water became an ideal transport mechanism. Water dripped into the duct work and was carried throughout the building (Beveridge Health & Science Section). This illustrates the importance of plumbing in the spread of disease.

Today the plumbing industry is heavily regulated. A 150 page International Plumbing Code book regulates every aspect of plumbing - from the correct grade of waste pipe at ¼ “ per foot to proper water supply pipes servicing no more than two bathroom fixtures per ½” copper line (IPC 65,111). This code book of thousands of specific rules is updated every three years and strictly enforced by state employed and heavily trained inspectors. There is also a separate code book which is used to regulate certain sewage rules, aptly named the International Private Sewage Disposal Code. This more specifically ensures that residences outside of the city’s sewage system are properly equipped with their own system of sewage removal. The most common and well known individual sewage system being the septic tank. Both of these code books are written and reviewed by code enforcing officials, industry representatives, design professionals and other interested parties (IPSDC Title Page).

A problem that used to cause massive death and disease has only recently been successfully implemented throughout developed countries. However, there are many countries where people are dying due to the lack of clean drinking water and proper disposal of their waste. In a world that has become so globally dependent, such a simple but life saving invention should be available to everyone. However, plumbing is solely dependant on a strong infrastructure. If certain plumbing codes are not properly enforced or sewer systems built, plumbing can not be properly utilized. More than just a machine that changed the world, plumbing is system at the foundation of any successful society. Even thousands of years ago in the ancient civilizations of Mesopotamia and Pompeii, individuals understood that the health of its citizens and therefore power as a society lay solely in the formation of a decent plumbing system.